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India possesses a remarkably heterogeneous civilization, and its culinary traditions are equally diverse. The process of making each dish varies based on geographical area, religion, and culture. If we talk about the culinary traditions of India, it has been significantly shaped by historical events such as foreign invasions from Persia, Greece, Rome, the Mongol Empire, Western Asia and more. Notably, the arrival of ingredients such as potatoes, a treasure brought by Portuguese explorers and Arab traders during the 16th century, stands as an exemplar of the blend of cultures that stirred India's culinary pot. Trade invasions painted a culinary panorama that is both diverse and mesmerizing. Each invasion, be it from the west or the east, lent distinct flavors and techniques, merging with indigenous culinary practices to create a symphony of tastes that our palates enjoy today.
The British
The most influential force in the development and dissemination of Indian food was the British Empire, which, as a capitalist and globalising power, was also the most responsible for its widespread distribution. During the period of British colonial rule in India, a multitude of intricate culinary techniques were introduced to Indian kitchens. The introduction of flexibility and diversity in Indian cooking led to the incorporation of various english cooking styles into the menu. The practise of grilling on cast iron pans and roasting has been introduced to us by the British. Among the notable British contributions was the infusion of whisky and tea into the Indian gastronomic landscape, shaping cultural preferences and social practices. The legacy of the British also involves the inception of curries combined with rice, which took root during this era. The realm of Anglo-Indian cuisine, epitomized by Raj cuisine, emerged as a remarkable outcome of this culinary confluence. Innovations like Kedgeree, an interpretation of Indian Khichdi, as well as various shorbas, were bestowed upon Indian kitchens by British culinary traditions. This marked the advent of soups in Indian culinary repertoire, with creations like mulligatawny becoming esteemed classics.The restaurant culture that emerged from these establishments during the twentieth century's colonial and postcolonial migrations spread from Britain to the rest of the world, including India.
The Europeans
The arrival of Vasco da Gama in India brought about a significant transformation in Indian cuisine. The introduction of spices, including the widely used ingredient chilli, can be attributed to Vasco da Gama in 1498. In contemporary times, it is increasingly challenging to encounter a meal that does not incorporate this essential component.The legacy of Portuguese influence is perhaps most pronounced in Goa's culinary landscape. The names of dishes themselves bear the imprint of Portuguese culture, and the distinctive flavors of Goan cuisine—vividly tangy, boldly spicy, and profoundly aromatic—attest to the interplay of these culinary heritages. Portugal's culinary footprint extends to seafood, where prawns make a prominent appearance, and meats like pork and beef become regional delicacies prepared in diverse manners. The iconic Vindaloo exemplifies this fusion, with its roots tracing back to Portuguese mariners who brought meat preserved in wine and garlic to Goa's shores.
The culinary journey continues to dessert, where the Portuguese legacy is encapsulated in the opulent Bebinca—a decadent confection crafted from luscious layers of egg-based batter. Additionally, everyday sustenance, represented by bread, assumed a vital role on Goan breakfast tables, testifying to the Portuguese influence that seamlessly permeated daily fare.
Present-day Goan Catholic food is a living evidence to the lasting influence of Portuguese customs. The region's rich cashew resources were significant, since they allowed for the cultivation of cashew nuts, which played an important role in the development of regional cuisine. Incorporating cashew fruit into the making of feni, a lively local favourite, is a fascinating example of the innovation that developed from the intersection of two cultures in the kitchen.
It is also documented that the Portuguese had an impact on the cuisine of Bengal in the 16th century. The Portuguese are credited with introducing cheesemaking to Bengal, where it has thrived for centuries. They were owed some Bandel cheese. The Portuguese introduced a variety of fruits to their region, including cashew nuts, tomatoes, pumpkins, pineapples, guavas, and passion fruits, which were sourced from the tropical Caribbean islands. This gastronomic exchange wasn't confined to Bengal alone; Abida Rasheed, a celebrity chef specializing in Malabari cuisine says,“ Being on the coastline in Malabar, we have seen a blend of coastal food getting transformed and coconut milk taking centerstage in most of the curries. And then the Mahe territory was a Union territory, and they had a lot of French people which gave rise to the fineness of French cooking.”
The Greeks
Greece is renowned for its assortment of fresh herbs, including oregano, mint, and coriander, as well as essential oils like olive oil. The arrival of Alexander the Great in India in 350 BC marked a significant event, as it facilitated the introduction of Greek herbs and spices to the region. Greek cuisine is a fusion of culinary traditions from the Roman Empire and Turkey. During the era of Alexander, the Great, there was a significant increase in trade activities between India, Rome, and various Mediterranean nations. As a result, Indian cuisine experienced a notable infusion of saffron, as well as a wide array of herbs and spices. Greek cuisine is also renowned for its assortment of fruits, cheese, nuts, grains, and oils. This has made significant contributions to India's vegetable diversity, including popular varieties such as aubergine and zucchini. The pan-fried kalhari, originating from Jammu, India, exhibits a flavour profile reminiscent of the Greek cheese known as kasseri.
The Persian
The Muslims who migrated from western Asia brought with them a culinary tradition known as Mughlai. During the 12th century, the Mughals invaded India and conquered a substantial portion of the country. The emergence of Awadhi cuisine in Lucknow can be attributed to the invasion of Mughals from Persia into Uttar Pradesh, during the reign of Nawab Asaf ul Daulah. This culinary tradition had a significant impact on Indian gastronomy. The lavish spreads of food served during Mughal banquets had a significant impact on Indian culture. Food Historian, Sohail Hashmi mentions, “India's cultural influence extends beyond its borders, as various regions around the world have equally embraced Indian traditions. There exists an ongoing exchange that has persisted for several millennia. The involvement of Arabs is also significant in this connection. The introduction of sugar cane to Egypt from India is attributed to the Arabs. The Egyptians were significant in the development of crystal sugar, which eventually made its way back to India and became known as misri. The tandoor cooking technique has been promoted by Central Asia. The credit for the creation of leavened bread, specifically khamiri roti, can also be attributed to the Persians. However, the technique of roasting and slow cooking in stages has been derived from Indian culinary traditions. Mughal cuisine has developed in India and is particularly renowned in the northern region. Pilaf and spices are two examples, among many others, that are integral to Central Asian cuisine. However, it is important to note that their usage differs significantly from North Indian cooking.” They introduced several new culinary techniques, including the use of cardamom, mace, nutmeg, and a wide range of nuts including almonds and pistachios. The cooking styles also underwent a transformation with the introduction of spitfire roasts, leading to the emergence of kebabs and tandoori dishes. The spices were of exceptional quality and can be described as exotic. The incorporation of milk, cream, nuts, and dried fruits has contributed to the development of biryanis and pilafs, which continue to hold significant importance within Indian culture. The Mughals favoured meats as their preferred dietary choice, in contrast to the Aryans who advocated vegetarianism.
The Chinese and Mongolia
The culinary influences of China and Mongolia have significantly impacted the cuisine of East India, particularly in states like Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, and Manipur, which share geographical proximity to these regions. The culinary connections with Mongolia brought novel ingredients and cooking techniques to the forefront. The Mongols introduced the concept of hot pots and stews, altering the cooking landscape. While rice remains a staple in the Eastern Indian diet, the Mongolian culinary tradition emphasizes meat and dairy products. The creation of hot pot dishes involves crafting minced meat dumplings cooked in a flavorful broth. Mongolian culinary techniques have also contributed to the simplicity of the local cuisines in these states, with steaming and frying becoming prominent methods of preparation. Even elements such as sugar and mustard oil have been influenced by Mongolian culture, enhancing the flavor profile.
On another front, Chinese culinary influences have also woven themselves into Indian gastronomy. The prevalence of stir-fries in Indian dishes is a testament to this connection. Food blogger, Indrajit Lahiri mentions in his food blog, Mohamushkil, that “Chinese food has almost become a religion for us, Bengalis. And after Biryani, chow mien-chilly chicken is what we love the most. What we enjoy, is not a typical Chinese cuisine- but an Indianized version of the same. And we can call it Indo-Chinese cuisine. And as with any cuisine.”
An interesting parallel can be drawn between the Indian ‘Kadai’ and the Chinese wok, both ubiquitous in their respective cuisines. While Bengal and other parts of eastern India are renowned for their sweet offerings, Chinese influence on Indian cooking has extended the scope of flavors and techniques. Indrajit mentions, “Once the Governor-general Mr Warren Hastings granted the Chinese the land for setting up a sugar factory, the first Chinese settlement in India was then born and Chinese Sugar got introduced into Indian Tea. Because of its origin in China, Locals named it “Chini”. Before this settlement had settled, there was hardly any documented usage of refined sugar in Bengal sweets. In India, the readily available sweetener was brown sugar referred to in the Indian language as “Shakkar”. There is a difference between Shakkar and Chini. Shakkar is a brown (unrefined) sugar while Chini is a white free-flowing sugar. Other types of available sweeteners were Misri alias rock candy and Gur or Jaggery (sugarcane & date palm).” The interplay of these foreign influences alongside local traditions has enriched the culinary panorama of East India, resulting in a diverse and intriguing tapestry of flavors and cooking methods.
The Dutch
During the 17th century, the French East India Company initiated the settlement of French individuals in Pondicherry, primarily for the purpose of trading spices. Although the Dutch had previously invaded Pondicherry in 1693, it was the French who established a significant presence in Pondicherry, as well as in Mahe, Yaman in East Godavari of Andhra Pradesh, and Karaikal in Tamil Nadu. Through Dutch trade routes, Indonesian spices like nutmeg, cloves, and cinnamon made their way to India. Pastries baked in the Dutch style, such as bol, were incorporated into local desserts. The Dutch had a relatively short colonial presence compared to others, but their impact may be tasted in the varied cuisine of places like Kerala, where delicacies like Ericheri (Erissery) recall the region's historical ties to the Netherlands. The Dutch left behind a legacy that serves as a reminder of the complex network of cultural interchange that has moulded India's thriving culinary tradition.
In the north, where the mighty Himalayas cast their shadow, hearty grains and dairy reign supreme. As we descend to the coastal plains, spices and seafood take center stage, painting a vivid portrait of the land's maritime traditions. Journeying south, coconut, tamarind, and rice define the culinary landscape, reflecting the coastal expanse.
Thus, the crucible of India's culinary heritage has been stirred by the hands of history, geography, and culture. Each dish carries the whispers of centuries, inviting us to relish the rich mosaic that is Indian cuisine.
