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IN the vast tapestry of British culture and literature, one aspect has remained ruefully overlooked: the phenomenon of vegetarian restaurants. These establishments, that cropped up in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, held a significant place in the vegetarianism movement in Victorian England.
However, to fully appreciate the cultural and literary significance of vegetarian restaurants, it is essential to journey back to the 17th and 18th centuries, when the British public developed a burgeoning interest in Indian culture and sprawling cuisines. This newfound interest, not unexpectedly, gave rise to diverse perspectives on vegetarianism. One such perspective, voiced by John Ovington, a chaplain for the East India Company, portrayed meat-eschewing Indians as “innocent”, “humble” and “spiritually attuned”, contrasting them with the “rough” and “hot-tempered” English military. Ovington acknowledged the advantages of vegetarianism in protecting against disease, but also suggested that it made the Indians less vigorous compared to the Englishmen.
As British writers of the time increasingly embraced the notion that Indians were inherently passive and incapable of fighting, vegetarianism became a tool for justifying their colonial subjugation. These writers believed that the vegetarian diet contributed to the perceived weakness of the Indians and their suitability for domination by a stronger, meat-eating people. Yet, amidst these prevailing stereotypes, certain women writers challenged the narrative and reinterpreted vegetarianism as a symbol of a more civilised, egalitarian, and less macho worldview.
Phebe Gibbes, an Englishwoman living in Calcutta (modern-day Kolkata), published the novel Hartly House in 1789. In this work, Gibbes observes the local people as tranquil and temperate, influenced by her experiences and her love for a Brahmin man. She eventually converted to Hinduism, partly due to its principles of nonviolence and kindness toward animals. Similarly, Eliza Hamilton's 1796 work Letters of a Hindoo Rajah, while supporting the British colonial project to some extent, also highlights Hindu characters expressing horror at the British mistreatment of animals. Hamilton ultimately expresses hope for a society that embraces socialism, democracy and egalitarianism.
Fast-forwarding to the late Victorian era in Britain, vegetarianism had become a popular movement embraced by various progressive groups. These included utopian socialists, religious dissenters and labour rights activists, among others. Vegetarian restaurants sprouted across the country, with a particular concentration in London but also in cities like Birmingham, Glasgow, and Manchester.
One of the prominent proponents of ethically motivated vegetarianism during the early 19th century was English Romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley. Influenced by John Frank Newton's seminal work Return to Nature (1811), Shelley authored an essay titled A Vindication of Natural Diet in 1813, where he passionately advocated for the many benefits of embracing a plant-based lifestyle.
Interestingly, class divisions also played a pivotal role in shaping the Victorian vegetarian movement. As the meat industry flourished, many working-class Britons primarily adhered to vegetarian diets out of practicality rather than a conscious pursuit of health and ethical principles. Their limited resources and circumstances prevented them from having the luxury of dietary choice, leading them to view a mixed diet as a vital source of energy.
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Vegetarianism’s association with health reforms
Vegetarian restaurants were part of the broader health reform movement, which encompassed the rise of dietetics and physical culture. The meat-free meal was marketed as a means to improve bodily efficiency and mental vitality. Eustace Miles, the owner of the popular vegetarian restaurant Mr Eustace Miles in Covent Garden, was a well-known advocate for physical exercise and “Simpler Foods." His restaurant adopted a didactic approach to dining, organising menu items based on their nutritional value and offering literature and lectures on food reform.
The restaurant capitalised on the association with physical culture, hosting exercise classes and marketing products like Emprote, a preparation of dried milk and cereal (touted as a training tool for athletes and cyclists). Meat substitutes and vegetarian restaurants offered a variety of patented alternatives, emphasising their nutritional value and superiority to meat. These efforts aimed to address the rising digestive distress among white-collar workers, attributed to poor diet and the pressures of desk work.
Office workers as customers
Vegetarian restaurants in late 19th and early 20th century London targeted white-collar workers, providing them with fast and affordable meals. Clerks, stenographers, and workers from nearby warehouses, publishers' offices, and businesses frequented these establishments. Vegetarian advocates and publications highlighted the health benefits of meat-free dining for sedentary occupations, emphasising the positive effects of legumes on productivity.
Novels like George Gissing's New Grub Street (1891) depicted the ill effects of working life on characters' health, particularly their digestive problems, reflecting the challenges faced by clerks and writers in a competitive marketplace. The increase in office employment in London during this period led to the development of infrastructure, commerce, and cultural amenities catering to the needs of desk workers.
Vegetarian restaurants played a role in shaping collective identity, political organising, and the gendering of urban space. However, the portrayal of vegetarianism in literature often associated it with poverty and deprivation, reflecting the struggles faced by lower-middle-class workers. Balancing moral imperatives with commercial concerns, these restaurants presented their fare as both healthy and marketable.
Nexus between the suffragette movement and vegetarianism
Not just clerks and office workers, vegetarian restaurants became the gathering places for the progressive suffragettes. Vegetarian eateries like The Eustace Miles Restaurant, Gardenia, Criterion, and Tea Cup Inn in London hosted meetings, dinners, and lectures related to the suffrage campaign. The Minerva Café, established by the Women's Freedom League, served as a headquarters for suffragettes and other activists, functioning as a site for political organising and generating income for the suffrage movement.
These restaurants provided a safe and respectable dining space for women, who often faced restrictions and harassment in other establishments. They played a role in opening up public spaces for women in the expanding workforce of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It is interesting to note that a significant number of British suffragettes were vegetarians even before their involvement in the suffrage movement, as noted by historian Leah Leneman. While fighting for voting rights, many of these suffragettes vehemently opposed vivisection, fur coats, stuffed-bird hats, and meat consumption.
During that time, the act of cooking meals at home was primarily perceived as a responsibility associated with women. As a result, suffragettes believed that opting for bean and grain-based dishes instead of meat-centred ones would require less time and effort. Others empathised with the subordinate roles assigned to animals in human society. They argued that feminism and vegetarianism were intertwined. In fact, they contended that even cooking vegetarian food for one's family, if a woman was unable to contribute to the movement outside the home, was a step towards their empowerment.
