During the mediaeval period, bread held significant importance as a staple in people's diets, leading to great concerns over its supply and pricing among local authorities. The costly equipment involved in brewing and baking, especially the oven, created a thriving commercial market for these goods. Consequently, there arose a perceived necessity for regulations to control the quality, pricing, and accurate measurement of bread, aiming to prevent deceptive practices by food providers.
This led to the establishment of well-defined laws governing the manufacturing and sale of bread, including criteria to evaluate weight, quality, price, and ensure a consistent supply. Pivotal and functional, one of the most promising commercial laws in mediaeval England was the assize of bread, introduced statutorily in the 13th century, approximately 1266. This law aimed to maintain a constant price for a standard loaf while adjusting its weight according to fluctuations in grain prices. As the cost of corn increased, the size of the loaf decreased, and vice versa. This system of variable weight prevailed throughout Europe from as early as 794 CE until the 18th century.
The Law
The Assize of Bread and Ale, attributed to King Henry III and dating back to around 1266-1267, was the first law in British history to regulate the production and sale of food. The legislation established the price of ale and the weight of a farthing loaf of bread. It was enacted in response to the bakers' request in Coventry and incorporated earlier ordinances from Henry III's predecessors. It also led to the implementation of local regulatory licensing systems with recurring fees and penalties for violations. In rural areas, manorial lords enforced the statute through tri-weekly court sessions.
The statute also defined various units of measure, establishing the weight of an English penny and its relation to grains of wheat, as well as the conversion rates between different measurements such as ounces, pounds, gallons, and bushels.
Concerning bread, the assize provided a fixed scale that determined the price and weight of a farthing loaf in relation to the price of wheat. For instance, when a quarter of wheat was sold for twelve pence, the best white bread's farthing loaf would weigh six pounds and sixteen shillings. The weight of the loaf was adjusted as the price of wheat fluctuated, with every sixpence increase in the quarter's price resulting in a reduction in the loaf's weight. When wheat reached twenty shillings per quarter, the prescribed weight for the loaf was six shillings and three pence.
Similarly, the assize regulated the price of ale based on the prices of wheat, barley, and oats. It stipulated that when a quarter of wheat was sold for three shillings or three shillings and four pence, brewers in cities could sell two gallons of ale for a penny, while outside cities, they could sell three gallons for a penny. When three gallons were sold for a penny in a town, four gallons were allowed to be sold outside of a town.
Over time, this standardised pricing scale became cumbersome and burdensome. In the 16th century, the 23rd statute of Henry VIII enacted that ale brewers could charge prices deemed appropriate and sufficient at the discretion of the local justices of the peace. The quality of ale was assessed by officials called "gustatores cervisiae" or ale-conners, who were annually appointed in the court-leet of each manor. These ale-conners were sworn to examine and ensure the beer and ale were of good quality, sold at proper prices according to the assize, and to report any deficiencies of brewers to the next court-leet.
Punishment
If bakers were found to be in violation of the prescribed regulations, the consequences could be severe, with punishments varying across different cities. In Oxford, Southampton, and London, officials had a range of penalties at their disposal, including monetary fines, bread forfeitures, physical chastisement and public humiliation. The most commonly imposed penalties in Oxford and Southampton were financial sanctions.
When it came to monetary penalties, bakers could face either a misericordia or a fine, depending on the severity of their transgressions. A misericordia, typically reserved for minor infractions, entailed a smaller monetary amount, ensuring that bakers who had only violated the regulations a few times faced a relatively lenient punishment. In the hearings held in Oxford and Southampton, the misericordia never exceeded one shilling. The highest misericordia recorded in Southampton was twelve pence, while in Oxford it reached eighteen pence. On the other hand, fines were imposed for more serious and repeated violations, resulting in larger sums.
For less significant breaches of the regulations, bakers could also face the seizure or forfeiture of substandard bread. This form of punishment was particularly prevalent in Southampton, where an astounding 79 percent of penalties consisted of bread forfeitures. The confiscated bread was often sent to prisoners at Bargate Prison in Southampton.
However, for those bakers who committed grave offences or repeatedly flouted the assize, more severe measures were employed, involving physical retribution and public shame. The punishments of the hurdle, pillory, and thewe were not only physically uncomfortable but also deeply degrading. Bakers sentenced to the hurdle were paraded through the bustling streets of London, ensuring their humiliation was witnessed by their peers and the public. William Chester, a baker in London, experienced this ordeal as he was dragged from the Guildhall through Cheap to Temple Bar, ensuring that his fellow bakers observed his ignominy. Richard Heyne, a baker who adulterated his bread with sand, suffered the same fate as he was transported to Newgate Prison on the hurdle, his bread carried before him on a lance, while people loudly proclaimed his offence.
Abolition
Yet, with the passage of time, the Assize gradually faded into obscurity, ultimately meeting its demise. The Assize of Bread was finally abolished (for London) by the Bread Act of 1822. A plethora of factors, ranging from its dwindling effectiveness to the winds of economic change, culminated in its termination.
One insidious force undermining the Assize's efficiency was its growing ineffectiveness. As bakers and brewers devised crafty methods to evade these regulations, the very foundations of consistency were eroded. They employed subtle machinations, employing substandard ingredients or tampering with measurements, muddling both pricing and quality.
In the tapestry of economic transformation, the Assize found itself ill-equipped to withstand the winds of change. With the advent of a burgeoning market economy, the rigid price controls imposed by the Assize grew increasingly obsolete. The feudal system, once a pillar of mediaeval society, crumbled beneath the weight of progress, necessitating a more adaptable regulatory framework.
As the wheels of industrialisation churned, a new era beckoned, demanding standardisation. The proliferation of mechanised processes and mass production upended the status quo, and rendered the centralised Assize system untenable. Embracing the spirit of laissez-faire, advocates of economic liberalism championed the cause of free trade. As the 19th century rang in legal reforms, the Assize met its final reckoning.
The Assize of Bread and Ale, once a mighty guardian of mediaeval marketplaces, ultimately bowed to the currents of change. Its abolition, a culmination of diminished effectiveness, economic evolution, advocacy for free trade, and legal reforms, heralded a new era of commerce and governance. As we navigate the realms of regulation today, this bygone system reminds us that even the staunchest bastions of authority can crumble when confronted with the ever-unfolding waves of progress.